Linguistic Diversity

According to the Swedish linguist Mikael Parkvall: ‘Languages are very unevenly distributed among the countries of the world.’ He lists the world’s countries with the largest number of languages:

1. Papua New Guinea [823]
2. Indonesia [726]
3. Nigeria [505]
4. India [387]
5. Mexico [288]
6. Cameroon [279]
7. Australia [235]
8. DR Congo [218]
9. China [201]
10. Brazil [192]
11. United States [176]
12. Philippines [169]

It’s curious how the linguistically most diverse country in the world is Papua New Guinea – because it’s also the place with the biggest biodiversity anywhere, one of the last places in the world where new species get discovered regularly. It leads one to wonder whether there could there be a single explanation for both phenomena?

Advanced Mistakes (i)

Source: Swan. M. 2005. Practical English Usage Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press (2011).

Practical English Usage lists over a hundred common mistakes in the English language. Even advanced students of English make mistakes. Swan (2005) has listed a number of them.

“I’ll ask you in case I need help.” = I’ll ask you if I need help.
(271.3) In case and if are normally used in quite different ways. ‘Do A in case B happens’ means ‘Do A (first) because B might happen later’. ‘Do A if B happens’ means ‘Do A if B has already happened’.

“I object to tell them my age.” = I object to telling them my age.
(298.2) To is actually two different words. It can be an infinitive marker, used to show that the next word is an infinitive (e.g. to swim, to laugh). It can also be a preposition, followed for example by a noun (e.g. She’s gone to the park, I look forward to Christmas). (298.1) When we put a verb after preposition, we normally use an -ing form (‘gerund’), not an infinitive.

“I like the 60s music.” = I like the music of the 60s. / … 60s music.
(69.3) Some expressions are ‘half-general’- in the middle between general and particular.

“ten thousand, a hundred and six.” = ten thousand, one hundred and six.
(389.11) We can say an eighth or one eighth, a hundred or one hundred, a thousand or one thousand, a million or one million, etc. One is more formal. A can only be used at the beginning of a number.

“‘Who’s that?’ – ‘He’s John.’” = ‘Who’s that?’ – ‘It’s John.’
(428.9) We use it for a person when we are identifying him or her.

“I don’t like to be shouted.” = I don’t like to be shouted at.
(416.1) The objects of prepositional verbs can become subjects in passive structures. We have looked at the plan carefully. – The plan has been carefully looked at. Note the word order. The preposition cannot be dropped.

“It’s ages since she’s arrived.” = It’s ages since she arrived.
(522.2) In British English, present and past tenses are common in the structure It is / was … since …

“The police is looking for him.” = The police are looking for him.
(524.7) Cattle is a plural word used to talk collectively about bulls, cows and calves; it has no singular, and cannot be used for counting individual animals. Police, staff and crew are generally used in the same way.

Interesting Portuguese

cabisbaixo [adjective.]

• having one’s head turned down, due to sadness.

morrer na praia [verb.]

• (idiomatic) to fail after trying hard and almost succeeding. Literally: “to die on the beach.”

nem que a vaca tussa [adverb.]

• (idiomatic) definitely not; by no means; not in a million years. Literally: “not even if the cow coughs.”

pedra no sapato (f.) [noun.]

• a minor but constant problem; an annoyance. Literally: “a stone in the shoe.”

Odd Words

Old English
dūstscēawung (f.) [noun.]

• viewing or contemplation of dust.

Emilian
mustadûra [noun.]

• the act of treading on grapes.

Spanish
desengaño (m.) [noun.]

• realization of the truth, especially after a period of deceit.

Quechua
maywaq [noun.]

• he who caresses.

Tongan
huhu [noun.]

• breast; breasts; teat;
• fork.

Tahitian
mania [adjective.]

• (of the sea or weather) calm;
• (figuratively) serene, tranquil, peaceful (state of mind).

Quechua
allpayay [verb.]

• to become soil.

Swedish
hen [pronoun.]

• (neologism) a personal pronoun of unspecified gender; an alternative to “hon” (she) or “han” (he).

German
Tante-Emma-Laden (m.) [noun.]

• mom-and-pop grocery store, mom-and-pop convenience store.

Russian
шпионома́ния (špionománija) (f.) [noun.]

• spy mania, spy fever (paranoia about spies, fearmongering about the threat of foreign spies).

Old Norse
hundrað (n.) [noun.]

• a long hundred (120).

Finnish
rupsahtaa [verb.]

• to lose one’s beauty or handsomeness, especially regarding the shape and firmness of body.

Catalan
esgatinyar-se [verb.]

• to fight mutually using scratches, in the manner of cats;
• (figuratively) to have a catfight.

Swedish
pekoral (f.) [noun.]

• a text written in a grandiloquent or pompous style but lacking literary quality, thus making it seem overly pretentious or ridiculous.

Tok Pisin
long [preposition.]

• used to mark spatial direct objects that something is oriented in the manner of, where English would use to, toward, into, or onto;
• used to mark spatial direct objects that something is oriented in the location of, where English would use in, at, on, or near;
• used to mark indirect objects, or direct objects of intransitive verbs, where English would use to;
• used to mark spatial direct objects that something is oriented in the manner opposite of, extracted from, or away from, where English would use from or out of.

Latin
arborēscō [verb.]

• I become a tree.

Intermediate Mistakes (iv)

Source: Swan. M. 2005. Practical English Usage Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press (2011).

Practical English Usage lists over a hundred common mistakes in the English language. Listed below are a number of mistakes that intermediate students of English often make according to Swan (2005).

“He’s married with a doctor.” = He’s married to a doctor.
(499) The most common combination is: marriage to; get/be married to (not with).

“Can you mend this until Tuesday?” = Can you mend this by Tuesday?
(602.6) We use until to talk about a situation or state that will continue up to a certain moment. We use by to say that an action or event will happen at or before a future moment. (117.1) By can mean ‘no later than’. Compare: I’ll be home by five o’clock. (= at or before five).

“There’s a hotel in front of our house.” = There’s a hotel opposite our house.
(401) We put the adjective opposite before a noun when we are talking about one of a pair of things that naturally face or contrast with each other.

“I like warm countries, as Spain.” = I like warm countries, like Spain.
(326.1) We can use like or as to say that things are similar. Like can be a preposition. We use like, not as, before a noun or pronoun to talk about similarity. Compare: like + noun/pronoun.

“Please explain me what you want.” = Please explain to me what you want.
(198) After explain, we use to before an indirect object.

“When you come take your bike.” = When you come, bring your bike.
(112.1) We use bring for movements to the place where the speaker or hearer is, but we use take for movements to other places.

“My brother has got a new work.” = My brother has got a new job.
(148.3) Work is an uncountable noun, whereas job is a countable noun. (66.1) We do not normally use an indefinite article with plural and uncountable nouns.

“He’s Dutch, or better Belgian.” = He’s Dutch, or rather Belgian.
(491.4) People often use or rather to correct themselves.

Intermediate Mistakes (iii)

Source: Swan. M. 2005. Practical English Usage Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press (2011).

Practical English Usage lists over a hundred common mistakes in the English language. Listed below are a number of mistakes that intermediate students of English often make according to Swan (2005).

“Most of people agree with me.” = Most people agree with me.
(356.1-2) Most can mean ‘the majority of’. We do not use the before most with this meaning. We do not generally use of after most when there is no other determiner (e.g. article or possessive). Before determiners (e.g. a, the, my, this) and pronouns, we use most of.

“I looked at me in the mirror.” = I looked at myself in the mirror.
(493.2) A common use of reflexive pronouns is to talk about actions where the subject and object are the same person.

“We waited during six hours.” = We waited for six hours.
(167) During is used to say when something happens; for is used to say how long it lasts.

“I like eating chocolate milk.” = I like eating milk chocolate.
(385.1) Many common ideas in English are expressed by noun + noun compounds. In this structure, the first noun modifies or describes the second, a little like an adjective. Compare: milk chocolate (a kind of chocolate), chocolate milk (a kind of milk).

“Come here and look at that paper.” = Come here and a look at this paper.
(589) We use this/these for people and things which are close to the speaker. We use that/those for people and things which are more distant from the speaker, or not present.

“We go there every Saturdays.” = We go there every Saturday.
(193.1/6) Every is a determiner. We normally use it before a singular noun. If the noun is a subject, its verb is also singular. Every is used before a plural noun in expressions that refer to intervals.

“Which is the biggest city of the world?” = Which is the biggest city in the world?
(139.7) After superlatives, we do not usually use of with a singular word referring to a place or group. But of can be used before plurals, and before lot.

“I’m thinking to change my job.” = I’m thinking of changing my job.
(588.3) After think, -ing forms can be used, infinitives are not usually possible unless there is an object. However, think + infinitive can be used when we talk about remembering to do something, or having the good sense to do something.

“Can you give me an information?” = Can you give me some information?
(148.3) Information is an uncountable noun. (62.1) We put no article with a plural or uncountable noun. (67.2) We prefer some/any when we are thinking about limited but rather indefinite numbers or quantities – when we don’t know, care or say exactly how much/many.

Intermediate Mistakes (ii)

Source: Swan. M. 2005. Practical English Usage Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press (2011).

Practical English Usage lists over a hundred common mistakes in the English language. Listed below are a number of mistakes that intermediate students of English often make according to Swan (2005).

“Although it was late, but she went out.” = Although it was late, she went out.
(511.1) One conjunction is enough to join two clauses – we do not normally use two. However, we can use and or or together with a repeated conjunction.

“You have better to see the doctor.” = You had better see the doctor.
(230.2) Had better refers to the immediate future, but the form is always past (have better is impossible). After had better we use the infinitive to.

“I use to play tennis at weekends.” = I play tennis at weekends.
(604.2) Used to … has no present form (and no progressive, perfect, infinitive or -ing forms). To talk about present habits and states, we usually just use the simple present tense.

“It can rain this evening.” = It may/might/could rain this evening.
(345.3) To talk about the chance (possibility) that something will happen, or is happening, we use may, might or could, but not can. Might and could suggest a less strong possibility.

“My parents wanted that I study.” = My parents wanted me to study.
(283) Many verbs are followed by object + infinitive. With some verbs (e.g. want, allow), a that-clause is impossible.

“You must stop to smoke.” = You must stop smoking.
(299.12) Some verbs that are followed by -ing forms can also be followed by an infinitive of purpose. A common example is stop. E.g. I stopped running; I stopped to rest.

“I look forward to see you.” = I look forward to seeing you.
(298.2) To is actually two different words. It can be an infinitive marker, used to show that the next word is an infinitive (e.g. to swim, to laugh). It can also be a preposition, followed for example by a noun (e.g. She’s gone to the park, I look forward to Christmas). When to is a preposition, it can be followed by the -ing form of a verb, but not normally by the infinitive.

“I’m boring in the lessons.” = I’m bored in the lessons.
(409.2) Interested, bored, excited, etc say how people feel. Interesting, boring etc describe the people or things that cause the feelings.

“He has much money.” = He has a lot of money.
(357.1) Much is used with singular (uncountable) nouns. (333.2) There is not much difference between a lot of and lots of: they are both used mainly before singular uncountable and plural nouns.

Intermediate Mistakes (i)

Source: Swan. M. 2005. Practical English Usage Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press (2011).

Practical English Usage lists over a hundred common mistakes in the English language. Listed below are a number of mistakes that intermediate students of English often make according to Swan (2005).

“I promise I pay you tomorrow.” = I promise I will pay you tomorrow.
(217.3) We often use will in promises and threats. Note that the simple present is not possible in these cases.

“This is the first time I’m here.” = This is the first time I have been here.
(591.1) We use the present perfect in sentences constructed with this/it/that is the first/second/third/only/best/worst etc.

“I’ve been here since three days.” = I have been here for three days.
(208.1-2) For and since can both be used with a present perfect to talk about duration up to the present. They are not the same. Compare: for + period; since + starting point. We use for for duration – to say how long something lasts. To measure the duration up to the present, we use a perfect tense, not a present tense.

“If I’ll have time, I’ll go home.” = If I have time, I’ll go home.
(257.2) In an if-clause, we normally use a present tense to talk about the future. This happens after most conjunctions.

“If I knew the price, I will tell you.” = If knew the price, I would tell you.
(258.2) To talk about unreal or improbable situations now or in the future, we use a past tense in the if-clause (even though the meaning is present or future), and would + infinitive (without to) in the other part of the sentence.

“He said me that he was Chinese.” = He told me that he was Chinese.
(504.1) Both say and tell are used with direct and indirect speech. (Say is more common than tell with direct speech.) Tell is only used to mean ‘instruct’ or ‘inform’. So we do not use tell with greetings, exclamations or questions, for example.

“She told me she has a headache.” = She told me she had a headache.
(275.4) After past reporting verbs, we usually change the original tenses even if the things the original speaker said are true.

“There’s the man that I work for him.” = There’s the man that I work for.
(428.6) We do not use personal pronouns to repeat the meaning of relative pronouns. (494.7) As subjects or objects, who(m), which, and that replace words like she, him or it: one subject or object in a relative clause is enough.

“I’ve told you all what I know.” = I’ve told you all (that) I know.
(497.2) What is only used to mean ‘the thing(s) which’. It cannot be used as an ordinary relative pronoun after a noun or pronoun. (498.4) Instead, that is often used in identifying relative clauses instead of who/whom/which. That is most common as an object, or as a subject instead of which. (584.1/5) We can usually leave out the relative pronoun that when it is the object in a relative clause. Also, we can often leave out the conjunction that, especially in an informal style.

Telicity

Finnish and Estonian have a grammatical aspect contrast of telicity between telic and atelic.

Telic sentences signal that the intended goal of an action is achieved. Atelic sentences do not signal whether any such goal has been achieved. The aspect is indicated by the case of the object: accusative is telic and partitive is atelic.

For example, the (implicit) purpose of shooting is to kill, such that:

• Ammuin karhun meaning “I shot the bear (succeeded; it is done)” i.e., “I shot the bear dead”. = Telic.
• Ammuin karhua meaning “I shot at the bear” i.e., “I shot the bear (and I am not telling if it died)”. = Atelic.

Sometimes, corresponding telic and atelic forms have as little to do with each other semantically as “take” has with “take off”.

For example, naida means “to marry” when telic, but “to have sex with” when atelic.